Dimensions+of+Diversity

Edna Olive The African American Child and Positive Youth Development

1) Marian Wright Edelman a) Helping African American Youth build their self-efficacy so that they can create or become autonomous in seeking initiatives/opportunities b) Past research focused on the obstacles to positive youth development in regards to African American youth leading to descriptive labels such as ‘at risk, high-risk, disadvantaged & troubled’ 2) Research indicating effective environments needed for positive youth development for African Americans a) Positive skill/competency development and practice b) Supportive adult and peer relationships c) Identification and prevention of self-defeating behaviors d) Active connection with self as an individual and as a member of a larger whole e) Meaningful partnerships with adults and peers that facilitate self-development and community development 3) Purpose of the Article a) Contributing factors to youth development in African American youth culture b) How do these factors affect the development of African American youth c) Recommendations for implementation of effective youth development for African American youth 4) Items to note <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Factors or elements for success vary among diverse culture groups (programs address or embrace these factors) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Identity formation <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Minority versus belonging or being a part of the majority <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Challenges and impacts <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Self-image <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Self-awareness <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">c) Development is not traditional or ‘typical in fashion’ i.e. linear <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Development may be indirect or disorderly <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Differing held view on social institutions and level of importance/impact <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">5) Olive highlights 6 Factors of influencing development of African American youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Family <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Construction: Compared to other races high number of fatherless or female-headed families <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Disorganization: multiple or intersecting levels of transition within the family including physical moves (location, variety of living spaces) and familial roles (ambiguity or reverse roles/dual roles) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iii) Destruction: absence of male figures (death, incarceration, abandonment) or absence of parents (AIDS, drugs, abandonment) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iv) Positive influence achieved through consistency and strength <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Community <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Families and youth shaped by backdrop of the community <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Relationship additions or substitutes found in the neighborhood dynamic <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Mother, Father, Sibling ‘figures’ found or created <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Reinforcement of cultural norms or widely held beliefs <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(a) What’s acceptable/unacceptable <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(b) Gangs (sense of family?) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(c) Positive and negative influence on family and youth dynamic <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">c) Socioeconomic status <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Living below the poverty line <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Over 50% of African American youth are living below the poverty line resulting in a rising levels or occurrences of: <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(a) Depression <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(b) Low self-worth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(c) Behavioral problems <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(d) PSTD symptoms <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Survival mode <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Caretakers consumed if effort to survive <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Compromise or neglect of youth development <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(3) Struggle with consumerism/materialism and environment of lack <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">d) Spirituality <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Sacred core of culture passed down through the generations <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Provides routine, consistency, comfort <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iii) Spirituality flexes or grows through individual journey <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">e) Culture <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Inner cultural conflict regarding identity versus authenticity <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Perpetuation or absorption of negative stereotype/generalizations <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">f) Education <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Disparity between youth not making direct connection/correlation between benefit of institution of education and aspirations <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Other youth or adults use education as a means to explore or for experiential learning <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">6) Implications <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Understand, recognize and appreciate differences of African American youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Cannot take the colorblind approach <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Embrace and celebrate the differences of the culture <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iii) Embrace contributions made my African American culture in context of the human race <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Awareness of life circumstances of youth served <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Don’t become a part of the problem by focusing on symptoms while overlooking the below the surface issues affecting a youth’s disposition <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Let empathy not sympathy be the guide <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iii) Do not fall into a ‘savior’ complex <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">c) Provide multicultural experiences for African American youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Global impact and stifles ‘oppression’ by limiting interactions to homogenous group <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Reminder that all races/cultures have an impact or contribution to humanity <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">d) Provide opportunities to interact with positive African American adults <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Positive identification and Role model (inspirational)- <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Has local access to youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Fosters reality of success <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Mentorship <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">e) Involve African American youth as equal partners <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Autonomy or responsibility is best achieved by learning and being given responsibilities to account for <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Continued efforts to keep youth involved in their development and reinforcing value of these contributions <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">f) Adhere to the practices of strength-based paradigms <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Lean away from programming based on deficiency or weaknesses <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Programs that foster development of: <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Self-awareness <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Self-respect <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(3) Self-empowerment <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">g) Know thyself <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Be aware of your own beliefs and goal to ‘not harm’ (biases/mirroring) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Can’t help in areas in which you lack knowledge or awareness

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">7) Real World Example-Geraldine Ramirez

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">In working with African American youth on a regular basis, so many of these implications ring true. As a Teach For America Corps Member, we were warned on several occasions not to enter the classroom with the "savior" complex because other professionals and the students wouldn't respond well. I embraced this idea and agreed so much with Olive's idea of teaching students to be the victors and not the victims in their lives. In my experience, It is very easy to play the sympathy card when I consider so many of my students stories but because my story is so similar to many of theirs, I tend to take on the tougher role of pushing my students past their present situations and into dreams and actions towards their future. Olive's research on the academic beliefs of African American students rang so true to me as a teacher, I certainly see this manifested in my daily interactions with youth as I coach them in making connections between life outcomes and education. Everyday, I work to engage students as partners in their development as I encourage them to "get in the ring" with me as we fight to close the achievement gap in their lives. Although, I am regularly reminded of the many challenges Olive mentions that threaten student chances at a positive youth development, these implications suggested will continue to help me continuously reflect and adjust my practice to improve my effectiveness.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Development of Latino Youth: <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Implications for Park and Recreation Programs and Services <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Rodriguez, Larsen, Latkova, Mertel

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">1) A look of demographics and data <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Rising number of inhabitants in the United States <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Higher concentration in 13 states especially the southeast <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">2) Even with the numerical need for attention and research-currently insufficient academic support provided through parks and recreation to address needs of Latina youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Current research highlights or focuses on the negative life conditions <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Parks and Recreation has the activities that may potentially impact Latina youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Physical activity <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Promotion of positive health in low-income communities <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">3) Positive Youth Development model best addresses and reinforces the type of impactful programming need to address deficits among Latina Youth through foundation of the 5 C’s <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Competence <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Confidence <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">c) Connection <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">d) Character <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">e) Caring/Compassion <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">4) ***Cultural note and the use of “Latina” in research <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Please consider that “Latina” is used to encompass or describe those whose family origins stem from Latin America <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) However, there are multiple countries, cultures, languages, and experiences represented throughout these different Spanish speaking identities <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">c) Those with Mexican heritage have also been grouped as “Latina” <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">5) The Positive Youth Development Model Further Explained <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Builds youth capacities <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Constructs <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Developmental construct: People, places, things, relationships that support and promote opportunities for youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Developmental strengths: Skills and competencies necessary for transition into adulthood <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iii) Reduction of risk: Decreasing behavior or connection to detrimental activities or relationships <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">6) Looking at needs through 4 developmental domains <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Physical, Cognitive, Psychological & Emotional, and Social <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Each domain has both assets and high risk behavior <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">c) Domains may be influenced or impacted by programs and community initiatives <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">7) Social Development <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Influence of self-concept based on parent-concept <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Family has a great influence on sense of self, support, and psyche <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">c) Extended family and friends play a heavy role in development growth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Capadres and Camadres role: youth often view these persons as Aunts and Uncles and look up to them for guidance <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Capadres and Camadres expectations: emotional and financial support of youth throughout development and commitment to take care of youth should something happen parent or guardian <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">d) Peers <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Influence minimal in early years <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Heavier influence in middle school age through high school age <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">e) Teen Pregnancy <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Higher rates of teen pregnancy in Latina youth in comparison to non-Latina youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Risk areas to include poverty, STDs, and dropping out school <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iii) Children conceived during teen pregnancy fighting against probability of low test scores, health issues, incarceration, etc. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">f) Gangs <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Sense of extended family <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Comprises roughly 1% of the Latina youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Primarily Mexican youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Violence affects those affiliated and not affiliated in the community <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">8) Physical Development <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Overweight <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Geographical implications <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Different rates or percentages of overweight youth in certain geographical locations <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(a) North Carolina study reported a percentage of 28% in comparison to Northern or Midwestern counterparts such as Pennsylvania with 54% and Wisconsin with 52% <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(b) Numbers or disparities vary based on national born versus those immigrated to the United States. National born youth often take on poor diet and lack of activity reinforced in social culture. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Physical Activity <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Affected by access to parks and recreation <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Types of activities available through parks and recreation <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iii) Biological factors and disposition <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iv) Reinforcement of select actives based on neighborhood/community or available resources <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">c) Nutrition and food insecurity <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Food security versus food insecurity-the ability to access food and the use of food <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Ramifications-food insecurity plays a role- <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Physically-anemia and other health related issues due to unbalanced diet and scarcity of consumption <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Emotional/mental-depression, lack of attentiveness cognitive performance which influence emotional stability and mental stamina especially in the classroom <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">d) Body Image <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Influenced by level of acculturation-Western or American view of ‘thinness’ <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Some parents or mothers want thinness for self but are less stringent on children <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iii) Some parents want children to be thin depending on gender of youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iv) Youth especially those that are acculturated prefer thinness <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">e) Other health concerns <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Rise of asthma and diabetes <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Diabetes type 2 rising due to: <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Levels of fitness <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Concentration of fat versus vegetables in food <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(3) Overweight/Body Mass index <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">9) Cognitive Development <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Graduation rates <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) On average 55% of youth graduate with a High School diploma <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) On average 13% of youth go on to graduate with Bachelor’s degree <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iii) Rates affected by status as well: <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Gender <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Immigration <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iv) Positive benefits of a more educated youth include <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Socioeconomic status <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Less need for social programs <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(3) Contributions to legal and political systems (public policy) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Early childhood <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Entering into pre-educational program in small percentages <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Barriers to entry and preparedness include: <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Availability of education centers <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Transportation <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(3) Health care and access <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(4) Connection to information <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">c) School challenges <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Low performance scores due to lack of resources <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Overpopulated and underfunded institutions <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Lack of preparatory educational serves in early childhood <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Some youth are forced to drop out due to family need for income/adult responsibilities <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iii) Teen pregnancy <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">10)Emotional Development <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Aggression and destruction <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Depression and withdrawal found in youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(1) Stress from acculturation <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(a) Frustration from immigration (missing family roots that may be outside the country) and discrimination in the United States <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(2) Family structure and norms <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(a) Forms of discipline and reinforcement <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(b) In males, restraint or lack of display of emotion may be cultural or familial expectation <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(3) Opportunity for practitioners to not rely on ‘behavioral based policies’ but include behavioral management in mission and outcomes <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Anxiety, fear, depression, and withdrawal <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">i) Separation issues spark inward or internal processing of high level emotions <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ii) Parents modeling passive or lack of emotional coping skills/strategies <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">iii) Opportunity for practitioners to incorporate family and youth in providing programming to address conflict, emotional expression, etc. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">11)Additional Domain-Spirituality <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Spirituality provides sense of hope, self, influences beliefs, and fosters resilience <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Connection between spirituality and leisure activity <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">c) Considerations for settings and individual needs for spirituality in activities or programming <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">12)Implications <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">a) Offering of positive settings to include after school programs and recreational activities <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">b) Highly structured activities to decrease or lessen likelihood of antisocial behaviors <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">c) Programming and relationships to foster deepening experiences for youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">d) Partnerships among private providers, non-profits, recreation, and volunteer groups to strategically align resources and connections with youth <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">e) Recognizing festivals can be tricky and attention must be paid towards the differing or variety of Spanish cultures falling under “Latina”-Mexican, Cuban, Dominican, Puerto Rican, etc cultural festival and traditions vary and not all are recognized by all Latinas <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">f) Promotion of healthy lifestyles and wellness advocacy <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">g) Improve customer service or relationship barriers (language and contribution) by using focus groups to drill down these issues and provide resolutions <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">h) Registration implications-due to legal and federal requirements there are hesitations for Latinas to follow group registration for use or access to local facilities out of fear of immigration or deportation information

Real Boys

Pollack

Overview: This article discusses the idea of stereotypes that boys deal with. While the culture of stereotypes for girls is changing, boys are still expected to hold in their emotions and feeling. This article highlights several different reasons to why this is a difficult issue in many boys and how it is affecting them as children and teenagers.


 * 1) The Mask –
 * 2) Boys are expected to hold in their emotions when they are upset. They typically will put on a “mask” in order to conceal what is truly happening inside of them.
 * 3) This poses problems for youth workers if they cannot reach beyond the mask, or they may not realize there is an issue at all.


 * 1) Boy Code-
 * 2) While our culture has begun to shift its views on female roles, the Boy Code is still in effect the young men. Boys as well as parents, teachers, relatives, and others still hold to the “outdated and constricting assumptions, models, and rules about boys that our society has used since the nineteenth century” (Pollack, 1999, Pg, 6).
 * 3) Living by Boy Code means that boys are expected to withhold their emotions or feeling. It can lead to loneliness and living behind “the mask”


 * 1) Getting Behind the Mask
 * 2) Be aware early of the signs of the mask

i. “bad grades, to rowdy behavior, from ‘seeming quiet’ to manifesting symptoms of depression from using drugs or alcohol to becoming a perpetrator of victim of violence” (Pollack, 1999, Pg 7.


 * 1) Let boys know it is ok to express their feelings through calm and trusting words

i. Ex: “What is going on – can you tell me?


 * 1) Learn to accept a boys own emotional schedule

i. Boys take longer to express their feelings than girls

ii. Boys also have a need to be still or “time silence syndrome”


 * 1) Connection through action

i. Just sitting down and talking may not be enough, connections can be shared through leisure/recreational activities that may open up opportunities for sharing


 * 1) Sharing of personal experiences


 * 1) Implications of Boy Code
 * 2) Overall, boys are typically at the bottom of classes
 * 3) Boys are earning lower grades than girls
 * 4) Boys are much more likely to deal with “hyperactivity”
 * 5) Don’t confuse bragging for confidence, this is often part of the “mask”


 * 1) Take Away for Youth Development Professionals
 * 2) Boys have a “hidden yearning for relationship – that makes them long to be close to parents, teachers, coaches, friends and family. Boys are full of love and empathy for others and long to stay “attached” to their parents and closest mentors” (Pollack, 1999, pg. 14).

Developmental Issues – I’m Not Waving, I’m Drowning

Pipher

1995

Overview: This article discusses the development of girls in the American society. It describes the various inner and outward battles that occur for girls and how they deal with adolescences.


 * Charlotte:**

- young girl with rebellious tendencies

- in a relationship with a man many years older than him, does drugs, smokes, and drinks at a young age

- had a father figure in her life early on, then adolescence hit and things started to spiral downward

- she wanted to help her boyfriend Mel

- hints of sexual and emotional abuse


 * Lori:**

- independent thinker, lots of quiet self confidence

- good relationship with parents

- not overly concerned with outward appearance

- well rounded with school, activities

- will this resiliency last through her later teenage years into adulthood


 * Additional Notes**

- adolescent is viewed as the “richest and most diverse at boarders…adolescence is a boarder between adulthood and childhood, as such it has a richness and diversity unmatched by any other life stage” (Pipher, 1995, Pg. 52).

- Development occurs in many areas: physical, mental, emotional, spiritual

- Girls are maturing at earlier ages because of additional exposure to light, hormones in foods, ect.

- The surface to girls is often the most important to them, what does it all mean, and they look for the smallest details to explain what is going on

- **Physical Selves:**


 * Girls start to mature and put on weight right at the same time they are told to be thin
 * The outward appearance becomes a top priority

- **Emotional Selves:**


 * Adolescence girls are often extremely emotional the littlest things
 * They can often swing from a very happy, excited emotions to intense sadness and pain with no given warning

- **Thinking Selves:**


 * Abstract thinking is often difficult for this developmental stage
 * Girls often put things into categories “People are assigned to groups such as geeks, preps, and jocks” (Pipher, 1995, Pg. 59).
 * Girls often seen the world as cut and dry, no room for in the middle
 * They also believe that everyone is wrapped up in what they are doing at all times, this will often include parents.

- **Academic Selves:**


 * “Boys are more likely to be praised for academics and intellectual work, while girls are more likely to be praised for their clothing, behaving properly, and obeying rules. Boys are likely to be criticized for their behavior, while girls are criticized for intellectual inadequacy. The message to boys tends to be: “You’re smart, if you would just settle down and get to work.” The message to girls is often “Perhaps you’re just not good at this. You’ve followed the rules and haven’t succeeded” (Pipher, 1995, Pg 62-63).
 * Boys are more likely to stick with a difficult problem, while girls will give up easily and think they are stupid.

- **Social Selves – Family**


 * “Adolescence is currently scripted in a way that builds in conflict between teenagers and their parents. Conflict occurs when parents try to protect daughters who are trying to be independent in ways that are dangerous” (Pipher, 1995, Pg. 65)
 * Girls resist being touched by the parents
 * Arguments can be a sign that girls want to stay close to their parents

- **Social Selves – Peers**


 * Major emphasis is placed on the thoughts and opinions of their peers
 * Girls will long for acceptance and affirmation from their peers
 * Girls will keep high expectations for other girls they themselves cannot meet
 * They will put others down in order to make themselves feel better
 * The teasing occurring for girls now is much more intense and personal

- **Spiritual Selves**


 * girls are typically searching for meaning and direction during this time period
 * they will take on missions like becoming a vegetarian in order to reduce killing of animals, helping the poor

Adolescent Spirituality and Positive Youth Development: A Look at Religion, Social Capital, and Moral Functioning

King

2007

Introduction:

- it is have been found that spirituality can have a major effect on positive youth development in youth

- “Gallup poll data on American adolescent religious beliefs and practices reported that 95% of youth aged 13-17 believe in God and 75% ‘very much’ or ‘somewhat’ agree with the statement ‘I try to follow the teachings of my religion.’

- Incorporating religion and spirituality has begun permeate the field of youth development


 * 1) Spirituality
 * 2) The ability for individuals to find meaning in life and allowing a transcendent being allow for connection
 * 3) Spirituality is different than religion in the sense that spirituality is driven from inner self where as religion has outward belifes and practices from “institutions”
 * 4) Both of these are found to have impact on an individuals life or thriving “(a concept incorporating the absence of problem behaviors and the presence of healthy development”

i. Health- those that believed themselves to be more spiritual were found to make healthier life choices in dieting, exercise, hygiene and others

ii. Academic Achievement – “research has also found school performance and academic achievement to have positive but modest correlations with church attendance and religious importance” (King, 2007)

iii. Civic engagement and altruism – youth were more active in helping those in the community as well as being involved in political campaigns

iv. Developmental assets – there are lower levels of risk behaviors in youth that attend church regularly or see themselves as religious

v. Identity – youth are found to have “higher levels of commitment and purpose when compared to less religiously engaged youth” (King, 2007).


 * 1) Meaning –

i. The idea of incorporating spirituality and religion into youth development becomes difficult because the means of operationalizing it is different based on the belief systems in place.


 * 1) Religion, Social Capital, and Moral Functioning
 * 2) The purpose of this research was to see if there was a connection between morality and religion might play out in life for a youth within the confines of social capital
 * 3) Social capital allows for understanding of how social connections are made, therefore how would a religious social context benefit those that are part of that social group
 * 4) The findings of this study concluded that “the effect of religiousness on moral behaviors is mediated through social capital, as indicated by the absence of a significant direct effect of religiousness on moral outcomes and a significant indirect effect of religiousness through social capital” (King, 2007)

VI. Real World Examples-Geraldine Ramirez
 * "It have been found that spirituality can have a major effect on positive youth development in youth" and one happens to be a product of this ideology. Much like Lori and Charlotte in King (2007), I too, had a troubled upbringing with a serious struggle in adolescence. My family life wasn't great and I could definitely identify with Charlotte's story concerning her parents and her personal struggles. Through tumultuous times, however, I reached out to my freshman English teacher in high school and she connected me to school and community resources that truly encouraged my strengths. Through her local church, I began to learn values and morals that helped me to make less risky decisions and I began to feel a greater purpose in life and a better sense of who I was. Through becoming more involved spiritually, I began to develop more holistically as I began to understand how everything worked together. Academically, I began to improve because I understood that it was important to operate in excellence. Morally, I made decisions that caused me to adjust my social circle, and emotionally I began to find better ways to cope with my struggles at home that were less destructive to my well being. Overall, religion became a great catalyst that pushed me to truly capture a picture of who I was, whose I was and what I was called to do. This trio of knowledge helped me to successfully navigate through life's hardships and develop character, competence, make connections, develop confidence and now even contribute as an educator myself (Hamilton et. al 2003). Through mentoring, spirituality and community support, I'm certainly a product of positive youth development and the positive effects that spirituality can have on youth.


 * Positive Development for Youth with Disabilities**

Young people with developmental incapacities face a host of hardships that nondisabled youth do not experience in their communities and daily lives. Regrettably, existing youth intervention and prevention strategies have been sluggish in response to the nation’s efforts to encourage positive developmental results. An area of concern lies in the efforts of many to implement programs that assist with life after formal education. Michigan Transition Initiative pursued an opportunity to enhance this transition in the lives of young people with disabilities that were developmental.
 * 1) Introducing the Struggle (Onaga et. al, 2003)

2. Family Realities Advances in medicine, changes in policy, education mainstreaming efforts and the increase in support for developmentally disabled youth and their families have led the way into certain realities.
 * For example, IDEA or Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is the prime legislation regulating school services for these young people in need. IDEA ensures that Individual Education Plans or IEP’s are created for each child which list the child’s specified services, accommodations and strengths. This legislation has a firm implied theoretical framework in positive youth development.


 * Positive Youth Development and IDEA


 * 1) Parents are encouraged to include students in the development of IEP’s
 * 2) Plans endorse skills that last a lifetime to individuals with special needs
 * 3) Enables their successful transition to the workforce and personal living

3. The Challenges A major difficulty for youth specialists is the inconsistency and variation across organizations in which work for disable students must be done: Families, communities and service providing institutions. The challenges below back an emphasis on short-term objectives rather that long-term results, the focus is on resolving prevailing crisis rather than long term goals.
 * 1) Agencies working from outlook of intervention rather than prevention
 * 2) Programming across spans of life and agencies are difficult
 * 3) Overwhelming and demanding caseloads
 * 4) Burden of placed on individual professional and not collective groups of professionals
 * 5) Challenges of the daily living task for the physical, cognitive, emotional and/or communicative skills of students with disabilities

4. The Michigan Transition Initiative Launched in 1994 in an effort to successfully transition students with disabilities into life after high school, was The Michigan Transition Initiative. Competitive funding was received from a federal grant to evaluate the effectiveness of this initiative. Participants agreed to participate in a longitudinal study for 5 years, were asked to identify supports and obstacles contributing to their development, and identified key individuals and agencies that made significant impact on young person. __Ky’s Story__ __Lessons Learned__
 * Lessons Learned from Two Stories of Success
 * Ky had a supportive and caring adoptive mother, neighborhood and community. He also possessed social skills and temperament that opened doors socially, at work, and recreationally
 * Numerous networks across vocational and recreational institutions (Family, Neighborhood, Work and Individual Resources) worked together to ensure Ky’s positive community youth development experience
 * The community’s involvement in Ky’s development, extracurricular activities, and positive peer role models all greatly helped Ky to transition successfully
 * Gabarino (1995), Schorr (1997), Kretzmann and Mcknight (1993), and Benson (1997) all support the benefits of communal involvement in the life of youth, especially disabled youth
 * The work setting also provided opportunities for personal development

__Bo’s Story__ __Lessons Learned__
 * Bo had a supportive biological mother, who advocated for him academically which opened occupational doors and linked him to the community. He also possessed internal assets of a love for work and a willingness to help others in need.
 * Bo’s many assets enabled him to become a successfully employed citizen in his community despite developmental differences.
 * Support and advocacy from a caring parent(s), support from the school and community involvement and interpersonal skills all assist in the positive youth development of developmentally disabled youth.

Ky and Bo’s case study’s reveal the importance of resources from the individual, neighborhood and community support, adult support and access to productive involvement.

5. Promoting Youth Development For Youth with Disabilities

__Implications for Practitioners__


 * Requires participation of multiple adults over time
 * Can cross institutional boundaries, sectors
 * Adults must exhibit extreme patience
 * Longer periods of engagement due to developmental delays
 * Become anchors in life of youth (Gabarino, 1999)
 * Adults must be advocates
 * Create linkages between institutions and identifying learning environments that promote PYD
 * Create a vision based on assets and help create success paths
 * Ultimate objective=Independent Living and optimum development in work and social relationships

__Outcomes for Practitioners__


 * 1) Relationships provide distinctive understanding into the progress of developmentally disabled youth
 * 2) Adults could become ambassadors for designing environments that promote PYD
 * 3) Adults are able to look beyond confines and discover platforms for maximum development
 * 4) Adults become advocates for the larger community and become community resources
 * 5) Adults become knowledgeable on policies and opportunities that can promote PYD

6. Conclusions

“Is the model of positive youth development being effectively implemented for youth with disabilities?” (Onaga et. al, p. 165, 2003)

The model for Positive Youth Development is being unevenly fulfilled; results did not reveal consistency across systems. Adults who serve youth with disabilities must find opportunities and means to implement asset based approaches.

**Gender, Ethnicity, Development, and Risk: Mentoring Considerations of Individual Differences**
 * 1) **Introducing the Rationale (Darling et. al, 2006)**

The mentoring movement works to nurture relationships that encourage optimistic developmental courses in both the mentors and their protégés. These relationships are molded by the distinctive qualities that each participant in the relationship contributes and the resources and occasions available to them. Darling et al (2006) suggest that mentoring programs identify the needs and goals and recognize the processes that foster program success specifically in the area of individual differences in gender, race, ethnicity, and culture and development.

Mentoring programs based on a consideration of human development can enable the development of youth as needs are matched to the relationships to ensure the right fit; mixed and weak findings in research could be the result of this lack of fit. Consequently, developing mentoring programs that best meet the needs of youth and accept the roles that gender, ethnicity, and development might have in the influence of these relationships helps researchers and practitioners.
 * 1) **Conceptualization and Theory**

It is likely that the social differences between girls and boys affect their experience with mentoring. For example: Research Limited studies have assessed gender differences in mentoring but there are some suggestions of varied experiences. //Can an understanding of processes help to reconcile these finding? (Darling et al., p. 770, 2006)// Implications for PYD
 * 1) **Gender & Research**
 * Girls are more likely than boys to experience a more emotional closeness with family during adolescence
 * Psychosocial outcomes influence boys more whereas quality relationships are more likely to influence girls
 * Girls and boys seek out support in a different way: Girls are more likely to seek emotional support which affects them more strongly than boys
 * In evaluating the Big Brothers and Big Sisters, girls were more likely to end relationships than boys (Grossman & Rhodes, 2002)
 * Seidl (1982) found that 36% of matches did not last a year with boy mentors appearing to be more important
 * Dubois, Neville, Parra, and Pugh-Lilly (2002) discovered that boys were more likely to nominate mentors as significant influences than girls (73.3% vs. 26.7%)
 * Despite indicators the different experiences between boys and girls was unrelated to program effectiveness (Dubois, Holloway, et al., 2002)
 * Two types of support were distinguished: Instrumental & Psychosocial
 * Instrumental mentoring is problem and goal focused
 * Psychosocial mentoring is focused on the process of personal quality development
 * Female mentees tend to seek out psychosocial support whereas males seek out instrumental support
 * Bogat and Liang (2005) suggest that due to the high value girls place on connection and closeness, mentoring relationships tend to be more helpful, well received and they benefit most from mentoring during high levels of stress
 * Rhodes (2002) suggest that meaningful discussions are key component of successful outcomes (Rhodes, 2002)
 * Rickwood &Braithwaite (1994) suggest that mentoring programs that are more verbal based may not be as helpful for boys

Much like gender differences, race, cultural and ethnic differences are also associated with mentoring experiences. For example: //Why does ethnicity matter? (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993)// - Salience of ethnicity
 * 1) **Race, Culture, and Ethnicity & Research**
 * Black females reported more ties to significant adults than did white females or black or white males (Hirsch, Mickus, & Boeger, 2002)

- Difference between racial and ethnic identity - The meaning of ethnicity within cultural context - Culture -Collectivism derives from the “whole group” mentality and is more common in Latino, Asian and African American cultural groups than in European American youth (Marin & Marin, 2001) Research Most unsurprisingly mentoring relationships of the same race/ethnicity are occurring most often (Bryant & Zimmerman, 2003; Cavell, Meehan, Heffer, &Holladay ,2002; Klaw & Rhodes, 1995; Rhodes, 1999, Contreras, & Maglesdorf, 1994; Rhodes, Ebert, & Fischer, 1992; Sanchez & Reyese, 1999). Youth are typically in environments with adults of the same racial/ethnic backgrounds.
 * 1) An ethnic identity refers to feelings toward a sense of belonging to, an ethnic group and tends to be more noticeable among minority youth than the dominant group (Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, &Vedder, 2001)
 * 2) These identities impact both the choice of mentor and the relationship dynamics
 * 1) Mentors might share the same race but have different ethnic identities (Ex. Russian vs. American)
 * 2) Failure to specify ethnicity when selecting mentors can lead to poor fits and could affect program success
 * 1) US Culture with its legacy of discriminating against persons of color provides a vital context for mentoring interactions
 * 2) Stereotype threat and Cultural Mistrust are identified as important influences in black and white relationships (Steele, 1997)
 * 1) Differences in values also have effects on mentoring relationships
 * 2) Collectivism vs. individualism is one common distinction

-Japan youth are more likely to describe adults and relatives as peers but less likely to name their parents(especially mothers) as mentors -Chinese adolescents were more likely than US peers to identify older individuals and teachers as significant influences - Bentacourt and Lopez(1993) argue that without direct measurements of these cultural factors, it’s difficult to support these findings. - Mentors distinguished by African American and Urban Latino youth have a tendency to be extended members of the family whereas white students recognize both relatives and nonrelatives as mentors (Cavell et al, 2002)
 * Ensher & Murphy (1997) students were more satisfied with relationships if they perceived to be similar in common areas outside of race/ethnicity
 * Differences and similarities across cultural context are important to understand (Chen, Greenberger, Farruggia, Bush & Dong, 2003); Claes, Lacourse, Bouhard, & Luckow, 2001; Darling et al., 2002).

//Are mentor-protégé matches more successful when they are homogenous? (Darling et. al, p. 772, 2006)//
 * Mentoring Literature is still in the beginning stages of understanding the involvement of race/ethnicity and cultural influences on the mentoring relationship. Researchers need to specify questions and find ways to measure the process effectively. Given the diverse population served, advancing knowledge would benefit youth and programs.

Implications for PYD
 * Youth who differ in the perceived importance of racial/ethnic identities may have diverse involvements with mentors from similar or different backgrounds
 * Families and Youth who value collectivism are best served by programs that nurture relationships of the young person and various adults
 * Cultural mistrust may affect the mentoring relationship negatively

//-Real World Example-Geraldine Ramirez: When tutoring black students from different communities at one’s school, many black students who have white teachers pull the race card when facing academic struggles. When their weaknesses are uncovered and supported they then began to draw away from the race card. These youth are less likely to seek out a white academic mentor.//

Researchers who rely on current theory of developmental processes are able more able to identify the role of the mentor in the lives of young people.
 * 1) **Mentoring and Development & Research**

Four differences must be recognized if programs are focused on youth from different ages:

1. The context of the relationship 2. The mentees ability to contour the relationship 3. The mentoring experience 4. The young person’s vulnerability


 * Cognitive Transitions-Adolescents tend to discuss a variety of topics with their mentors which allows mentors to enter into their lives more easily whereas mentor relationships with children have to be supplanted by activities (Games, sports, arts and craft)
 * Contextual Transitions- As youth move from childhood to adolescence, normal changes in their environment occur ( School, family, peer relationships), exposure to potential risky behaviors increase and emphasis is placed on comparisons socially and performance expectations ( Larson et. al, 1996 & Lord & Buchanan, 1996)

Research An emphasis on development is oddly absent from basic research on mentoring and the assessment of mentoring programs. Limited programs have been aimed specially for children and those intended for adolescents only seldom differentiate between the needs of younger and other young people (Darling, 2005) Implications -Personal Example-Geraldine Ramirez: One’s community in school has implemented a mentoring program between teachers and a group of liberal arts students to help reduce the risk of dropping out and to improve academic gains. This has been an excellent idea but teacher burn out is hindering effective relationships. Questions to consider: (Darling et. al, p. 776, 2006)
 * Grossman and Rhodes (2002)-Discovered that children aged 10-12 years were less likely to end mentoring relationships than were young people aged 13-16
 * Age related differences in cognitive and verbal abilities, youth tendency to shape the relationship, skills and activities, social networks, the daily tasks youth face, and the context in which youth time is spent all influence these findings.
 * Younger mentees have difficulty expressing their desires and needs and are less able to actively shape their development
 * Younger mentees also express stress differently than adolescents which may be difficult for those working with older adolescents to understand
 * Premature ending of mentor relationships affect older and younger children
 * Positive relationships are seen as the key gauge in mentoring success
 * Adolescents are more likely to develop relationships from unrelated adults (Darling, Hamilton & Shaver;2003)
 * The reality of these developmental and contextual challenges reveals that mentoring programs may benefit from implementing a more instrumental goal focus.
 * Mentors must seek after ways to manage the uneasiness of being in a relationship with a child who desperately seeks relationship security, closeness emotionally or affection physically.
 * Those who work comfortably and effectively with children must then be different from those who are comfortable in relationships with adolescents
 * Teachers and those involved in the helping profession represent a hopeful source for mentoring relationships (DuBois, Holloway, et al., 2002)
 * Mentoring in the school could benefit in terms of academic performance and lower levels of dropouts
 * 1) **Recommendations for Future Research and Practice**
 * 1) Will mentored children acquire or improve their capacity to use certain skills above and beyond that which we would expect naturally with maturation?
 * 2) Will psychosocial mentoring lead to corrective attachment experiences that serve to counter maladaptive internal representations of close relationships? Will these changes be more pronounced for girls or boys?
 * 3) Is one on one mentoring programs as effective as other models for children whose culture values collectivism?

Individual variances in gender, ethnicity, and age can shape the necessities and characteristics of mentees. A focus on these differences will help ease the development of programs that create closer fits between the services offered by programs and the needs of the youth served.
 * 1) **Conclusions**